VERTICAL ENVELOPMENT

Heat. Heat. Land the landing force. Only a short time ago. land. The landing force meant strictly beach assault. And beach assault first required a softening up process of around the clock bombing and naval bombardment for several days before the troops were landed. Beach assault techniques were developing rapidly near the end of World War II. Then something new was added. Nuclear weapons were developed. Just prior to the Korean conflict, greater capabilities for the helicopters were being investigated. A helicopter and a nuclear weapon. Two highly divergent devices. Yet because of them, a new concept of amphibious operations has evolved. The concept of vertical envelopment. The nuclear weapon immediately meant a difference in the deployment of troops and equipment. Use of nuclear weapons makes great dispersion necessary. This greater destructive power broadens the scope of the attack and expands the objective area. The speed, range, and maneuverability of the helicopter not only lessens the effectiveness of the enemy's atomic weapons, but at the same time gives to any amphibious attack increased depth, flexibility, speed, power, and the great tactical advantage of surprise. Thus, the vertical envelopment concept has equal application under conditions of nuclear or non-nuclear warfare. In the non-uclear situation, conventional weapons provide sufficient firepower when applied with the maneuverability the vertical envelopment concept envisions because less dispersion of our forces is required. At present, a major emphasis still lies on the beach assault, but progress has been made to a point at which the beach assault is now one prong of a two-prong attack. The other prong is vertical envelopment by helicopter. As the concept is developed, the beach assault ability must be retained and improved. And at the same time, the organization and equipment, tactics, techniques, and training of the new concept must be adapted so as to increasingly place major stress on the helicopter assault. The beach assault echelon may be reduced still further as new amphibious ships join the fleet and as helicopters with greater load capacity become available in quantity. The central features of the vertical envelopment concept are first portability by helicopter of all assault elements of the landing force. Second, embarcation and movement of the landing force and equipment in a speciallyesed amphibious shipping. Third, the sudden and concentrated destruction or neutralization of enemy air and ground forces capable of opposing the landing attack as the task force closes the objective. Fourth, the shipto-shore movement and seizure of widely dispersed inland objectives by helicopter assault forces. Fifth, exploitation of the speed and flexibility of the helicopter in the conduct of subsequent tactical operations ashore. That is to seek out and destroy remaining enemy forces in the beach head area to assist in locating, engaging and defeating enemy forces endeavoring to penetrate or approach the beach head. Sixth, exploitation of the mobility of the helicopter and the range and speed of land plane and sea plane transports to provide reinforcements and logistic support whenever possible. And seventh, exploitation of all weather air support for counterair operations, for interdiction of the objective area, for reconnaissance and for close troop support. Before the vertical envelopment concept can be fully realized, appropriate amphibious ships will be required such as an amphibious force flagship AGC, an attack transport, APA, an attack cargo ship, AKA, landing ship dock, LSD, a gasoline tanker, AOG, an amphibious assault ship, LPA, H or an assault helicopter aircraft carrier CVHA. The amphibious ships will require two characteristics which present amphibious shipping does not possess. First, they must maintain station with fast non-ampibious combatant ships of the task force. The amphibious ships can then share the protection afforded by the aircraft of the supporting carriers, cutting down on the escort ships required. The added speed also makes it feasible to achieve greater surprise. And secondly, the new amphibious ships must be designed to facilitate rapid unloading by helicopter. In addition to the new amphibious ships, long range transport sea planes also are being considered to help move the landing force from its home base to the objective area. Days and even weeks of aroundthe-clock bombardment to soften up the objective area are no longer necessary with the vertical envelopment concept. Instead, preparatory strikes are made during the approach of the task force to the objective area and are accomplished primarily by aircraft of the task force. The first strikes are launched when the force is about 50 hours steaming time approximately 1,500 miles from the objective. These first strikes are made by the heavy attack aircraft of the task force, aided by theater and strategic air forces operating from land bases within range of the objective area. Heavy attack aircraft are used to destroy or neutralize hostile air installations in an area extending out from the objective to the maximum range of enemy high-performance aircraft. These attacks are accomplished while the task force makes its approach at high speed. When within 500 miles of the objective area, the light attack and fighter aircraft commence neutralization in the objective area. If nuclear weapons are used, complete destruction of enemy air installations will be achieved by nuclear attack. The range and effectiveness of our counterair operations also must be extended because of the magnitude of the threat posed by each enemy air intruder. If nuclear weapons are not used, conventional weapons will be employed to destroy enemy aircraft on the ground and to render ineffective the facilities required for the immediate support of enemy aircraft. In either case, the object is to eliminate the enemy short-range high-performance aircraft as an effective threat by forcing use of bases beyond effective striking range. This would leave his long range aircraft operating from bases beyond the neutralized area as the principal air threat to be dealt with by warning systems, interceptors, and guided missiles. In order to achieve maximum surprise and shock, it is important to the concept that the initial grasp of local air supremacy as well as the delivery of conventional or nuclear preparatory fires against ground targets in the objective area be concentrated in the shortest possible period. Exploiting these effects of shock and surprise, the helicopter assault forces launched the attack from the task force many miles offshore. Flights ranging as far as 100 m from point of takeoff and extending over divisional frontages of as much as 50 m are considered feasible. Flying over coastal obstacles, avoiding heavily defended areas or routes not previously neutralized. These assault forces seize deep inland objectives. To make the concept possible from a supply standpoint, combat units land with only enough supplies to meet their immediate needs. As the helicopter assault force lands, the troops move out from their landing zones to affect the link up with the beach assault force. Subsequent logistical requirements are met by the integrated delivery of steadily consumed supplies. Specific items are flown in as required. The maneuver capabilities of a helicopter-born assault force are utilized to great advantage in outflanking the defender by blocking routes of escape and delaying reinforcement attempts. Helicopters also are used extensively in establishing and supporting ground observers and radar posts and to supplement their range and coverage by vigorous patrolling. Beyond the neutralized zone, intensive air reconnaissance warns of the presence or approach of additional enemy troop formations and aids in bringing them under conventional or nuclear attack by aircraft or guided missiles. If the enemy succeeds in penetrating the neutralized zone in force, nuclear or long range conventional weapons can be used to strike the rear elements, while helicopters can be used to bring in short range conventional weapons to engage and destroy the forward elements. Assault forces in a vertical envelopment operation must be highly mobile. Concentrated massing of forces inviting nuclear attack is to be avoided. This places a premium on the maneuverability of the helicopter. The logistical system to support the widely dispersed fast-moving tactical units of the vertical envelopment concept relies increasingly on air transportation especially on the helicopter. Initially, supplies come by helicopter from ships serving as primary supply sources. As the operation progresses, small dumps, each containing complete supply assortments, are established ashore to replace or supplement the ships as primary sources. Intermediate dumps and the rehandling of supplies are largely eliminated by the delivery of supplies direct to consuming units either by helicopters or by light vehicles brought in by air. The supply level at each echelon is held to a minimum and to a great extent logistical services are furnished from outside the objective area or at least from outside the landing area. Material and maintenance are accomplished chiefly by replacement of end items or when this is impractical by replacement of major components. On the same principle, sick and wounded personnel requiring hospitalization or more than elementary first aid treatment are evacuated by air. Navy and marine aircraft of the task force operating from carriers provide air support throughout the operation. As soon as possible, landing force air units establish bases ashore. Helicopter units requiring no airfield preparation move ashore first. Some of the helicopters required for immediate tactical operations ashore remain there after making their first flight from the transports. Air warning and air control units are established just as soon as airfields can be constructed. Reconnaissance, attack, and fighter units follow in approximately that order. The chief aims in establishing air control units ashore as early as possible are one to put these units where they will be most responsive to the needs of the landing force as control of air functions is passed ashore. Eventually the control is in the hands of the landing force commander and secondly to ensure continuous air support under all conditions of visibility. Methods are being sought to simplify construction of airfields which would not only expedite air operations from shore bases but would cut down the amount of equipment which must be hauled by surface means to the objective area and put ashore. The biggest factor in the reduction of airfield construction is the use of vertically rising aircraft in addition to the helicopter. The application of the vertical takeoff principle to attack fighter and long range reconnaissance aircraft may eliminate the airfield problem altogether. Air strips in the meantime are cut to a fraction of their present length through the use of portable catapults and arresting gear. A mobile hydraulic arresting device is in the test stage. Future models will be capable of being broken down into helicopter transportable components. Fuel requirements are constantly rising. So the emphasis is on reducing the effort of handling fuel and to lighten the equipment needed. Most of the fuel is handled by means of the shipto-shore bulk fuel system. Before the bulk system begins to function and later to supplement its operation, fuel is delivered ashore by helicopters and transport aircraft and delivered to aircraft in flight by aerial refueling. Landing force air units employ a variety of weapons to support the amphibious assault. Guided missiles are used in both air defense and direct troop support. And landing force aviation also has a complete nuclear weapon delivery capability, including means for receiving and assembling weapons, for rapid processing of target information, and for prompt initiation of required atomic strikes. Landing force aviation contributes to the vertical envelopment concept as a mobile supporting arm and in addition provides the basic mobility ingredient, the helicopter. The vertical envelopment concept means the minimum essential quantity of men and material moved by fast amphibious shipping augmented by transport aircraft. Speed is paramount. When the task force is within 1500 m of the objective area, the first preparatory strikes begin. When within 50 to 100 miles, helicopters then transport the troops ashore to predetermined helicopter landing zones and follow up with a shuttle of the required supplies. The maneuverability of the helicopter coupled with the speed, range, and firepower of air support will permit a war of space and movement. A war of maneuver, controlling areas of unprecedented size through ability to maintain effective surveillance, to shift troops rapidly, to concentrate force when necessary. To attack from any direction. To furnish ample logistical support regardless of terrain conditions, and to apply firepower with precision under all conditions of weather and visibility. Eventually, when the concept is fully realized, the beach assault may be eliminated altogether, leaving only the service troops and supplies, consolidation forces, and base development units and material to be landed on the beaches or through ports in the beach head area. The concept envisages the employment with or without nuclear support of integrated landing forces and supporting air components organized, trained and equipped to exploit the speed and flexibility of the helicopter for the projection of sea power deep ashore at any point on the world literal without the necessity of direct assault on the intervening shoreline. The ultimate goal of the vertical envelopment concept is an all helicopter assault. This would permit complete freedom of action in selection of amphibious targets unhampered by hydrographic hazards, shore defenses, terrain obstacles, or inclement weather. Add to that the greatly enhanced tactical mobility of the landing force through the use of helicopters and the vertical envelopment concept of the amphibious assault multiplies by a large factor the nation's advantage in a realm in which it has and can maintain a great margin of superiority.